IndustryAtlas

SUPPLY CHAIN HANDBOOK

Nuclear energy: fuel, equipment, operations and back end

Prepared by IndustryAtlasEditorial principles & corrections

Read fuel preparation, plant equipment, operations and spent-fuel management as a lifecycle. Large reactors, SMRs and microreactors differ in design and development; a category alone does not establish commercial readiness or supply contracts.

Most recent source review:

Reading guide revised:

Why must nuclear supply chains include fuel, construction and the back end?

Equipment and engineering create the reactor, generation and control systems. A separate fuel chain supplies material suited to the reactor throughout operation. Used fuel still requires storage, transport and management, and retired facilities require decommissioning. Research therefore needs more than reactor-vendor names: it must identify fuel forms, equipment interfaces and lifecycle responsibilities. Smaller or modular reactors change configurations and delivery methods, while retaining site, fuel and back-end requirements.

  1. Uranium and fuel processing → Reactor-compatible fuel

    Feedstock undergoes the relevant conversion, enrichment or other processing before fuel fabrication. Natural-uranium, light-water and advanced-reactor routes differ, so trace inputs from the selected reactor's requirements.

  2. Reactor design, equipment and engineering → Plant operation

    Design defines interfaces; vendors supply vessels, heat-transfer, control and generation equipment. Engineering integrates and commissions the site before operators take responsibility for fuel use, generation and maintenance.

  3. Used fuel and retired facilities → Storage, treatment and disposal

    Used fuel enters appropriate management and storage. Some countries use reprocessing; others pursue direct disposal. Interim storage, final disposal and plant decommissioning are separate functions.

What changes the choice?

Compare large, small modular and microreactors by fuel route and completed engineering milestones. Factory modules change where work happens; delivery timing still depends on the design, site and validation progress.

Sources for this overview

Nuclear power supply chain

Nuclear Power Supply Chain

Fuel and equipment converge in plant operations

Commercial nuclear fission has two main supply paths: replenished fuel, and equipment and engineering for construction and maintenance. They meet in plant operations, which also connect to spent-fuel management, disposal and decommissioning.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

No single country represents the whole chain

Kazakhstan and Canada have representative uranium producers. Russian and European companies have important enrichment roles; Chinese and Russian designs are prominent in recent construction. The US, France, Japan and South Korea contribute different technologies and equipment.

Scope of this map

The map covers commercial fission power by function and product role. It excludes fusion and weapons supply chains.

Explore SMR and MMR branches

Separate designs, fuel, equipment, site engineering and deployment. Smaller investment steps do not guarantee cheaper electricity; shorter construction does not guarantee earlier total delivery.

Uranium Mining and ConcentratesUranium Refining and ConversionUranium Enrichment ServicesNuclear Fuel Assembly ManufacturingReactor Technology and DesignNuclear Materials and Large ForgingsMajor Reactor ComponentsTurbines and Power Generation EquipmentNuclear Instrumentation and ControlNuclear Engineering and ConstructionNuclear Plant OperationsNuclear Maintenance and Life-Extension ServicesSpent-Fuel Storage and TransportFuel Reprocessing and RecyclingRadioactive Waste DisposalNuclear Decommissioning and RemediationSMR nuclear powerMMR microreactorsLight-water SMR designsHigh-temperature gas SMRsMicroreactor integrationLight-water SMR fuelHALEU feedstockTRISO fuel fabricationNuclear graphite and core materialsSMR equipment and modulesMicroreactor heat removalSMR site engineeringSMR grid and industrial projectsMMR demonstrations and microgrids

Distinction: A mine location, reactor design origin or corporate headquarters cannot stand for the nationality of an entire supply chain.

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Nuclear Plant Operations

Fuel and plant equipment meet in power generation

Operators use fuel and completed plants to generate electricity, manage operations and maintain equipment. EDF, KHNP, CNNC and Rosatom groups have operating roles of different scope.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

The supply chain lasts for decades

Fuel replenishment and maintenance continue during operation. Spent-fuel management also starts while a plant is operating, so these needs are not limited to new construction.

Distinction: Owning a reactor technology does not mean its developer owns or operates every overseas plant using it.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • EDF · France · Example role · Nuclear operations and projects

    French group; operating and new-build roles require site- and company-level confirmation.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • KHNP · South Korea · Example role · Nuclear-plant operations

    Korean operator with operations and engineering experience and overseas services.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • CNNC · China · Example role · Nuclear-power group businesses

    Chinese group covering operations, engineering and other businesses; roles are not all assigned to a single subsidiary.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Maintenance and Life-Extension Services

Inspections, replacement equipment and operating support

Nuclear plants need regular inspections, replacement parts and equipment, and operating support. Life extension involves technical assessment and local review; an equipment-upgrade order alone cannot establish its status.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

Existing units also need suppliers

KHNP offers operations and maintenance services, and Orano provides support for operating nuclear facilities. Track services for existing units separately from new-build trends.

Distinction: A maintenance contract does not mean a plant has received a life-extension permit or a confirmed restart.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • KHNP · South Korea · Example role · Operations and maintenance services

    Korean nuclear O&M support provider; this does not establish lifetime-extension permission for a particular plant.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Orano · France · Example role · Nuclear-facility operating support

    French provider of specialized maintenance, logistics and site support.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear fuel cycle

Uranium Mining and Concentrates

Fuel feedstock, mine location and ownership

Uranium extraction supplies the upstream material for nuclear fuel. Kazatomprom and Cameco are representative companies in Kazakhstan and Canada; mine location, joint-venture ownership and the final buyer are separate facts.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

A resource does not provide the complete fuel cycle

Buying uranium still requires the relevant conversion, enrichment or fuel-manufacturing services. Assess mines, processing capabilities and customer contracts separately.

Distinction: A uranium miner does not necessarily supply finished fuel assemblies. A country's production share is not a company's market share.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Kazatomprom · Kazakhstan · Example role · Uranium mining

    Main mining activities are in Kazakhstan; mine locations and joint-venture stakes vary by project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Cameco · Canada · Example role · Uranium resources and supply

    Canadian uranium-feedstock supplier; mine details follow company business disclosures.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Uranium Refining and Conversion

Preparing material for subsequent fuel processing

Refining and conversion produce the material forms needed downstream. The usual enriched-fuel route differs from the natural-uranium CANDU route; Cameco provides corresponding conversion and fuel services in Canada.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-04

Processing location is a separate fact

Representative suppliers include Cameco in Canada, Orano in France, and ConverDyn, which markets conversion services from the US Metropolis facility. Distinguish ConverDyn's marketing role from the facility operator.

Distinction: Conversion changes chemical form; it is not enrichment. Fuel types do not all follow the same processing path.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Cameco · Canada · Example role · Refining and conversion

    Facilities at Blind River and Port Hope, Canada; subsequent routes can serve light-water or CANDU fuel.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Orano · France · Example role · Uranium conversion

    Philippe Coste facility in France supplies materials for subsequent fuel processing.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • ConverDyn · United States · Example role · Conversion-service marketing

    Supplies UF6 produced at the US Metropolis facility; its website identifies Solstice Advanced Materials as plant operator.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Uranium Enrichment Services

A front-end stage for most light-water reactor fuel

Enrichment increases the proportion of the uranium isotope used in nuclear fuel. It is part of the front end for most commercial light-water reactors. Rosatom, Urenco and Orano are representative providers.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Company identity and facility location differ

Urenco has enrichment facilities in the UK, Netherlands, Germany and US. Orano's Georges Besse II facility is in France. Do not combine corporate nationality and production location into one label.

Distinction: Capacity, market share, actual output and exports are different measures. Natural-uranium CANDU fuel can follow a route without enrichment.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Rosatom · Russia · Example role · Enrichment business network

    The Russian group's fuel business includes enrichment; specific facilities and supply terms require contract-level verification.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Urenco · United Kingdom (headquarters) · Example role · Uranium enrichment services

    Production in the UK, Netherlands, Germany and US; headquarters in the UK.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Orano · France · Example role · Uranium enrichment services

    Georges Besse II production facility in France; fuel requires compatible downstream manufacturing.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Fuel Assembly Manufacturing

Fuel design and reactor compatibility

Manufacturers turn fuel material into assemblies for reactors. Westinghouse supplies fuel for PWR, BWR and VVER applications; Cameco supplies CANDU fuel, while CNNC has published its CF3 assemblies for Hualong One.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-04

Validate compatibility for each reactor

Westinghouse manufacturing facilities span the US, Sweden and UK. A supplier's broad product range does not make every assembly suitable for every reactor design.

Distinction: Offering fuel for a reactor type does not prove adoption or approval at every plant using that type.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Westinghouse Electric · United States (headquarters) · Example role · Light-water reactor fuel

    Manufacturing in the US, Sweden and UK; PWR, BWR and VVER fuel compatibility is product- and plant-specific.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Framatome · France · Example role · Fuel design and supply

    Nuclear-fuel solutions; compatible reactors and actual production plants depend on the product and project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Cameco · Canada · Example role · CANDU fuel

    Manufacturing at Port Hope and Cobourg, Canada; the natural-uranium CANDU route does not require enrichment.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • CNNC · China · Example role · Hualong One fuel

    CF3 fuel-assembly manufacturing in China; official disclosures address Hualong One and other specific designs.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear equipment & construction

Reactor Technology and Design

AP1000, EPR, Hualong One and APR1400

Reactor technology companies define the nuclear system and key interfaces, working with engineering, equipment and fuel suppliers. Representative groups include Westinghouse, EDF/Framatome, CNNC, Rosatom and KHNP.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

New-build concentration is a specific measure

The IEA's 2026 report states that 94% of reactors starting construction in the preceding decade used Chinese or Russian designs. This describes new-build designs, not global shares of fuel, components or maintenance for existing plants.

Distinction: SMR is a category of small modular reactors, not one reactor design or a guarantee that all use identical fuel.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Westinghouse Electric · United States (headquarters) · Example role · AP1000 technology

    US headquarters; AP1000 is a pressurized-water reactor. Technology origin does not establish every component's origin.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • EDF · France · Example role · EPR technology and projects

    French group participating in EPR projects in France and abroad.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • CNNC · China · Example role · Hualong One and other nuclear technologies

    Chinese group with nuclear design, engineering and related roles distributed across group businesses.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Rosatom · Russia · Example role · Reactor and engineering businesses

    Russian group providing nuclear design and engineering; reactor types depend on the project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • KHNP · South Korea · Example role · APR1400 nuclear projects

    Korean company participating in nuclear exports and construction with Team Korea partners.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Materials and Large Forgings

Large steel products and vessel forgings

Large forgings are important inputs for equipment such as certain reactor pressure vessels. Japan Steel Works publishes nuclear pressure-vessel forgings, illustrating the distinction between processed materials and complete equipment.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Material quality supports equipment reliability

Uniformity, cleanliness, processing and quality traceability matter. Forging capabilities must be checked against the requirements of the specific equipment and project.

Distinction: Large-forging capability does not establish qualification for every reactor design or nuclear component.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Japan Steel Works (JSW) · Japan · Example role · Forged steel for nuclear vessels

    Japanese provider of large reactor-vessel forgings; applicable models depend on the equipment project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Major Reactor Components

Pressure vessels, steam generators and pumps

Equipment suppliers turn materials into major nuclear-island components. Doosan and Framatome publish products or services covering reactor vessels, steam generators and pumps; the combination varies with reactor design.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Components must fit the system

Manufacturing requires specialized processing, quality records, inspection and interface coordination with the designer. Nuclear plants do not all use the same equipment.

Distinction: Steam generators are typical of pressurized-water reactors; they are not part of every reactor architecture.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Doosan Enerbility · South Korea · Example role · Major nuclear-island equipment

    Korean provider of reactor vessels, steam generators and coolant pumps, configured for each reactor type.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Framatome · France · Example role · Nuclear steam-supply equipment

    French provider of vessels, steam generators, primary pumps and related equipment integration.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Turbines and Power Generation Equipment

The conventional island converts heat to electricity

Turbines, generators and supporting equipment form an important part of a nuclear plant's conventional island. Arabelle Solutions supplies nuclear turbines and related services and joined the EDF group in 2024.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

Major equipment extends beyond the nuclear island

The reactor provides heat, while the generating equipment converts it into electricity. Equipment suppliers, reactor designers and plant operators have different roles.

Distinction: A reactor technology supplier does not necessarily manufacture the entire turbine-generator system.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Arabelle Solutions · France · Example role · Nuclear turbine-generator systems

    Member of France's EDF Group supplying turbines, generating equipment and maintenance; suitability is project-specific.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Instrumentation and Control

Monitoring, control and protection

Instrumentation and control systems provide monitoring, control and protection functions in nuclear plants. Framatome and Doosan publish nuclear I&C products; hardware and software must match the overall plant design.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

A continuing equipment lifecycle

I&C systems require integration, validation, maintenance and modernization. General industrial-control capability does not establish qualification for a nuclear project.

Distinction: Installing a general-purpose controller is not a complete nuclear I&C upgrade; the system and project require validation.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Framatome · France · Example role · Nuclear instrumentation and control

    French provider of new-build nuclear I&C and integration, validated for the reactor and project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Doosan Enerbility · South Korea · Example role · MMIS instrumentation and control

    Korean provider of control, monitoring and safety-related systems.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Engineering and Construction

Engineering, procurement, construction and commissioning

Engineering and construction bring reactor design, equipment, civil works and site activities together as a power plant. Bechtel and KHNP participate in nuclear projects, whose contracts may divide responsibilities among several companies.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

Designers and contractors have different responsibilities

The source of reactor technology does not identify the contractor for every construction task. Site conditions, equipment deliveries and commissioning must be coordinated.

Distinction: Supply arrows describe functional inputs, not confirmed orders between every representative company.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Bechtel · United States · Example role · Nuclear engineering and construction

    US company involved in large-reactor and SMR engineering; construction locations vary by project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • KHNP · South Korea · Example role · Nuclear construction integration

    Korean company in APR1400 and other projects; equipment and construction responsibilities span multiple partners.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Spent fuel & decommissioning

Spent-Fuel Storage and Transport

Wet and dry storage, and transport containers

Spent fuel still needs management after leaving the reactor. Storage and transport systems connect plants with subsequent treatment or disposal; Holtec and Orano provide relevant containers, systems or services.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Interim management is not final disposal

Storage facilities, transport containers and final disposal have different purposes. The map branches into direct disposal and reprocessing routes adopted by some countries.

Storage and transport approvals differ

Storage systems and off-site transport packages have distinct conditions. Spent-fuel shipments require shielding, containment, heat removal and approved arrangements.

  • This node retains the storage overview; transport services and cask supply are expanded in logistics.

Distinction: Dry storage does not make fuel nonradioactive or mean that final disposal is complete.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Holtec International · United States · Example role · Dry-storage and transport systems

    US provider of HI-STORM and other spent-fuel systems; configuration and permits are site-specific.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Orano · France · Example role · Nuclear-fuel containers and transport

    French provider of containers and associated transport services; fuel compatibility is product-specific.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Fuel Reprocessing and Recycling

An optional back-end route in some countries

Reprocessing is one fuel-cycle route chosen by some countries. Orano's La Hague and Melox activities in France cover spent-fuel reprocessing and work related to recycled fuel.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-04

Recycling still leaves waste

Recovered material can return to suitable reactors only after the relevant processing and qualified fuel manufacture. Remaining waste still requires management and disposal.

Distinction: Reprocessing is not mandatory in every country and does not remove the need for final disposal.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Orano · France · Example role · Reprocessing and fuel recycling

    La Hague and Melox facilities in France; recovered fuel serves compatible, authorized reactors only.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Radioactive Waste Disposal

Routes depend on waste type and national plans

Final disposal is distinct from interim storage, with arrangements depending on the waste and national plans. Posiva's ONKALO in Finland is a representative geological-disposal project for spent fuel.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

Waste categories need different treatment

Spent fuel, reprocessing waste and decommissioning waste have different classifications and disposal needs. ONKALO is not a universal service for all countries or waste types.

Distinction: Listing a project does not confirm that every permit has been granted or full commercial operation has begun. Follow official progress announcements.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Posiva · Finland · Example role · Final disposal of spent fuel

    ONKALO in Olkiluoto, Finland, serves Finland's disposal program; not a universal international acceptance service.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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Nuclear Decommissioning and Remediation

Dismantling, decontamination and waste management

After retirement, nuclear facilities need planned dismantling, decontamination, waste management and site remediation. Orano and Holtec publish services in this field.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

Work continues after shutdown

Decommissioning involves several engineering stages and waste-destination management. It must also coordinate spent-fuel removal and storage.

Distinction: Stopping generation is not completion of decommissioning. Decommissioning and final disposal are separate roles.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Orano · France · Example role · Decommissioning and waste management

    French provider of nuclear-facility dismantling, waste management and site services.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

  • Holtec International · United States · Example role · Nuclear dismantling and decommissioning

    US company providing decommissioning through associated businesses; progress depends on each plant project.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-29

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SMR supply-chain branch

SMR nuclear power

Light-water and advanced-fuel routes

SMRs are generally up to 300 MWe per module; several modules can form a larger plant. Examples here are BWRX-300, NuScale and Xe-100.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Benefits depend on deployment

Smaller investment steps and staged capacity can help. Repeat manufacturing may shorten construction, but total delivery time and electricity cost depend on licensing, maturity, supply chains and finance.

Light-water SMR designsHigh-temperature gas SMRsLight-water SMR fuelHALEU feedstockTRISO fuel fabricationNuclear graphite and core materialsSMR equipment and modulesSMR site engineeringSMR grid and industrial projects

Distinction: SMR is not one design. Not every SMR uses HALEU or TRISO, or is commercially operating.

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Light-water SMR designs

BWRX-300 and NuScale

Light-water SMRs reuse water-cooled reactor experience and parts of existing fuel supply chains while validating new integrated configurations.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Design approval is a separate milestone

BWRX-300 uses established GNF2 fuel. NuScale received NRC standard design approval for its 77 MWe module in 2025; this is not site-specific construction or operation approval.

Distinction: Modules, fuel and engineering configurations are design-specific.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • GE Vernova · United States · Example role · BWRX-300 technology

    GE Vernova Hitachi provides BWRX-300; Darlington is under construction.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • NuScale Power · United States · Example role · Light-water module design

    77 MWe standard design approved in 2025; not proof of site operation.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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High-temperature gas SMRs

Xe-100, power and industrial heat

X-energy Xe-100 combines gas cooling, nuclear graphite and TRISO fuel for electricity and industrial steam.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Reactor and fuel facility develop together

X-energy and Dow are advancing Seadrift. TRISO-X reported a TX-1 vertical-construction milestone in September 2026, with further work remaining.

Distinction: A fuel-facility milestone does not mean Xe-100 is commercially operating or all gas reactors use identical fuel.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • X-energy · United States · Example role · Xe-100 development

    Advancing industrial electricity and steam development with Dow.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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Light-water SMR fuel

Conversion, enrichment and assemblies

For Darlington BWRX-300, Cameco supplies natural UF6, Urenco USA provides enrichment, Orano supplies additional enriched uranium product, and GNF fabricates fuel.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Established fuel still needs qualification

GNF2 has a commercial supply base; loading must still meet reactor-specific design, quality and approval requirements.

Distinction: This project-specific supplier mix does not apply to every SMR.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Cameco · Canada · Example role · Darlington natural UF6 contract

    Canadian natural uranium conversion product before enrichment and fabrication.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Urenco · United Kingdom (headquarters) · Example role · Darlington enrichment contract

    Urenco USA provides enrichment, not assembly fabrication.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Orano · France · Example role · Darlington enriched-product contract

    Additional enriched uranium product, distinct from GNF fabrication.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Global Nuclear Fuel · United States / Japan · Example role · Darlington fuel fabrication

    Global Nuclear Fuel-Americas fabricates assemblies and provides technical services.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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HALEU feedstock

Higher-assay low-enriched uranium

HALEU generally contains more than 5% and less than 20% uranium-235. Some advanced SMRs and microreactors need it before fuel fabrication.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Enrichment differs from fabrication

Centrus and X-energy announced phased supply terms; Urenco and Westinghouse disclosed an agreement in principle for eVinci. Capacity and actual deliveries need separate verification.

Distinction: HALEU describes enrichment; TRISO describes a fuel structure. They are not synonyms.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Centrus Energy · United States · Example role · Phased Xe-100 supply agreement

    2026 agreement with X-energy; capacity and supply scale with deployment.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Urenco · United Kingdom (headquarters) · Example role · eVinci agreement in principle

    2025 HALEU enrichment arrangement; an agreement is not delivery evidence.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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TRISO fuel fabrication

Coated particles and design-specific forms

TRISO uses multiple coatings around fuel particles, formed into pebbles or compacts according to the design. Suppliers serve distinct projects.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

A shared label does not mean interchangeability

TRISO-X supports Xe-100; BWXT delivered Pele prototype fuel; Standard Nuclear manufactured Kaleidos test fuel for Radiant and signed a longer-term supply agreement.

Distinction: TRISO is not synonymous with HALEU, and fuel specifications are not interchangeable.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • TRISO-X · United States · Example role · Xe-100 fuel subsidiary

    Wholly owned by X-energy; TX-1 commercial fuel facility remains in development.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • BWX Technologies · United States · Example role · Pele prototype fuel delivered

    Full-core TRISO fuel arrival at INL announced in December 2025.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Standard Nuclear · United States · Example role · Kaleidos test and future fuel

    Manufactures Radiant test TRISO and has a longer-term supply agreement.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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Nuclear graphite and core materials

Temperature, irradiation and dimensional stability

Some gas-cooled and microreactor designs use nuclear graphite with design-specific irradiation, purity and structural requirements.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Qualify materials with the reactor

X-energy disclosed SGL Carbon capacity work for Xe-100 NBG-18 graphite. eVinci also uses graphite, but this does not establish an SGL supply contract.

Distinction: Industrial graphite capability is not proof of qualification for a nuclear project.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • SGL Carbon · Germany · Example role · Xe-100 graphite cooperation

    NBG-18 and European capacity work; not a claim of supply to all microreactors.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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SMR equipment and modules

Pressure vessels, forgings and factory assembly

Modularity shifts some fabrication and assembly to factories, while nuclear-grade materials, inspection and traceability remain necessary.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Read actual equipment contracts

BWXT has a pressure-vessel manufacturing contract for the first Darlington BWRX-300; NuScale ordered long-lead materials from Doosan for a separate design.

Distinction: Smaller reactors still need qualified components. A component order is not delivery of a complete plant.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • BWX Technologies · United States · Example role · BWRX-300 pressure-vessel contract

    2025 manufacturing contract for the first Darlington unit.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Doosan Enerbility · South Korea · Example role · NuScale long-lead material order

    Disclosed order for upper-vessel forgings, tubing and related materials.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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SMR site engineering

Architect-engineering, civil works and installation

Factory modules still need civil works, installation, controls, grid connection and commissioning. Darlington uses a multi-party delivery model.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Separate owner and contractor roles

OPG is owner and licence holder. AtkinsRéalis subsidiary Candu Energy provides architect-engineering; Aecon Kiewit Nuclear Partners handles construction planning and execution.

Distinction: Modularity does not eliminate site works, and equipment arrival is not commercial operation.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Aecon · Canada · Example role · Darlington construction alliance

    Construction planning and execution through Aecon Kiewit Nuclear Partners.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Kiewit · United States (headquarters) · Example role · Darlington alliance partner

    Kiewit Nuclear Canada partners with Aecon; not a separate reactor designer.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • AtkinsRéalis · Canada · Example role · Darlington architect-engineer

    Candu Energy is architect-engineer with a disclosed execution contract.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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SMR grid and industrial projects

Construction and development examples

OPG Darlington BWRX-300 has entered construction. Dow and X-energy are developing Seadrift for industrial electricity and steam.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Construction time is not total delivery time

OPG selected BWRX-300 in late 2021 and targets grid connection by end-2030. This is a plan, not completion evidence; first-module and whole-fleet delivery differ.

Distinction: An owner or development partnership listing does not mean SMR electricity is already being used.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Ontario Power Generation · Canada · Example role · Darlington owner and licence holder

    BWRX-300 under construction; target grid connection by end-2030.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Dow · United States · Example role · Seadrift industrial development

    Developing power and steam with X-energy; not current commercial Xe-100 supply.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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MMR microreactor branch

MMR microreactors

Microgrids, remote power and demonstrations

MMR here broadly means micro modular reactor. IAEA microreactors are typically up to 10 MWe; terminology and limits vary.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Match size to the mission

Examples include eVinci, Kaleidos and Project Pele. Their economics depend on local alternatives, transport and small-grid requirements.

Microreactor integrationHALEU feedstockTRISO fuel fabricationMicroreactor heat removalMMR demonstrations and microgrids

Distinction: Criticality experiments, test-fuel delivery and prototype manufacturing are not sustained commercial electricity generation.

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Microreactor integration

eVinci, Kaleidos and Pele

Microreactors integrate the core, shielding, heat removal, controls and transport interfaces. Cooling arrangements vary by design.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Separate prototypes from commercial products

eVinci has reported zero-power high-temperature testing, Kaleidos is advancing DOME testing, and BWXT is manufacturing Pele. These stages are not mature off-the-shelf power plants.

Distinction: Transportable designs still require site preparation, approvals and back-end arrangements.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Westinghouse Electric · United States (headquarters) · Example role · eVinci developer

    Heat-pipe/TRISO design with a 2026 zero-power high-temperature test milestone.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • Radiant · United States · Example role · Kaleidos developer

    A 1 MW-class transportable design advancing DOME testing and its supply chain.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • BWX Technologies · United States · Example role · Project Pele prototype integrator

    High-temperature gas-cooled power system in prototype and demonstration development.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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Microreactor heat removal

Heat pipes or gas cooling by design

Microreactors must remove heat and convert it into useful electricity or heat. eVinci uses heat pipes; Pele is gas-cooled.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Nuclear heat removal is a distinct qualification

Core, heat-transfer, shielding and power-conversion systems need integrated verification; ordinary server-cooling products do not establish nuclear supply roles.

Distinction: Passive heat removal does not remove the need for system safety evidence. Not every microreactor uses heat pipes.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Westinghouse Electric · United States (headquarters) · Example role · eVinci heat-pipe integration

    Integrated reactor heat pipes, without assuming ordinary cooling vendors are qualified.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

  • BWX Technologies · United States · Example role · Pele gas-cooled integration

    Prototype thermal and power integration still requires full-system demonstration.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

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MMR demonstrations and microgrids

Experiments, prototypes and future deployment

Facilities such as DOME collect performance evidence. Remote facilities and microgrids are target applications, with status varying by design.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-05

Read each milestone separately

eVinci reported high-temperature zero-power testing in September 2026; Radiant announced test-fuel arrival in July; Pele remains a prototype and demonstration program.

Microreactor integrationTRISO fuel fabrication

Distinction: A demonstration is not a commercially repeatable fleet. Fuel return and waste management still need arrangements.

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Long-form guides (Chinese)

核能發電產業鏈：燃料、設備與後端管理由哪些國家掌握？

從鈾礦、轉化、濃縮與燃料組件，到反應爐設計、設備建造、營運、用過燃料及除役，拆解核電供應鏈的國家與公司角色。