IndustryAtlas

SUPPLY CHAIN HANDBOOK

Traction batteries: materials, processes, cells and validation

Prepared by IndustryAtlasEditorial principles & corrections

Trace electrodes, separators, electrolytes and current collectors through electrode processing, assembly, formation and testing. Compare energy density, life, safety and production progress within their stated test conditions.

Most recent source review:

Reading guide revised:

Why does a promising material not automatically make a good battery?

Material performance must survive electrode processing, cell manufacturing and pack integration. Active materials work with binders, conductive additives and current collectors within controlled electrode structures. Assembled cells then undergo formation, aging and testing for actual capacity and consistency. Packs add connections, management and thermal design. Material, cell and pack energy densities describe different levels, so new claims need matching test conditions and a clear deliverable.

  1. Active materials, binders and collectors → Manufactured electrodes

    Mixing, coating, drying and calendaring form electrodes. Binders maintain adhesion and conductive additives support electron paths; composition and manufactured structure jointly affect performance.

  2. Electrodes, separation and electrolyte → Formed and graded cells

    Assembly combines layers and packaging, with filling and wetting for liquid-electrolyte routes. Formation, aging and electrical measurements screen cells and record capacity and resistance data.

  3. Cells and monitoring electronics → Vehicle battery packs

    Connections, structure, BMS and thermal management turn cells into packs. Validation expands from cell electrical properties to pack cycling and controls; the two deliverables are distinct.

What changes the choice?

Compare liquid, mixed and solid-state routes through electrolyte and interface requirements, then pressure, temperature, life and manufacturing conditions. Peak density figures measured at different levels do not rank production readiness.

Sources for this overview

EV battery supply chain

Battery Minerals and Refining

Lithium, graphite and chemistry-dependent metals

Processing and purification turn minerals into battery-material inputs such as battery-grade lithium salts. The battery chemistry determines whether metals such as nickel or cobalt are required.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Track each production location separately

Mine location, refining location and cell production are different stages. Battery-grade inputs must meet purity and consistency requirements. This category spans several minerals; one supplier does not represent them all.

From minerals to battery-grade chemicals

Refining feeds qualified chemical inputs. Coremax battery-grade nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate provide a documented upstream example.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: LFP cathodes do not require nickel or cobalt as constituent materials. EVs cannot all be represented by the same mineral list.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Albemarle · United States · Example role · Battery-grade lithium compounds

    Public lithium-hydroxide products; does not establish coverage of all minerals.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Cathode Active Materials

LFP, NMC and other chemistries

Cathode materials affect stored energy, operating voltage and other battery properties. LFP and nickel-based materials follow different chemistry routes.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Active material precedes electrodes and cells

Materials suppliers process feedstock into active materials for cell makers. Electrode processing and cell production still follow. BASF represents its published cathode products, not every possible battery chemistry.

Separate phosphate and nickel-based routes

LFP/LMFP and NMC/NCA use different compositions and inputs. Aleees provides phosphate-material technology; BASF is an existing nickel-cathode example. Explore their distinct upstream routes.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Cathode suppliers, cell manufacturers and vehicle makers are different roles, even within a vertically integrated group.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • BASF · Germany · Example role · Cathode active materials

    Cathode materials for automotive lithium-ion batteries; specific chemistries depend on the product.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Anode Materials

Graphite and silicon-containing formulations

Anode active materials use graphite and other materials. Formulation and electrode design affect charging, discharging and service life; Mitsubishi Chemical publishes natural- and synthetic-graphite product lines.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Active material and current collector are different inputs

Anode active material participates in energy storage, while copper foil collects current. A copper-foil supplier is not automatically a graphite supplier.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Silicon is used in some anode designs; batteries do not all use the same formulation or silicon content.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Mitsubishi Chemical · Japan · Example role · Graphite anode materials

    MPG natural-graphite and ICG synthetic-graphite product families.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Battery Separators

Separating electrodes while allowing ion transport

A separator prevents direct contact between the positive and negative electrodes while allowing ions to pass. Asahi Kasei's Hipore is a published lithium-ion battery separator example.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

A material matched to the cell design

Membranes and coatings must meet safety, strength and cell-design needs. Separators work alongside electrode materials and electrolyte in liquid-electrolyte lithium-ion cells.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: This node primarily describes liquid-electrolyte lithium-ion batteries and cannot be applied directly to every solid-state design.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Asahi Kasei · Japan · Example role · Lithium-battery separators

    Asahi Kasei Group Hipore separators and coating capabilities.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Battery Electrolytes

Lithium salts, solvents and additives

Electrolyte provides a medium for ions to move between electrodes. Its formulation must match the electrode materials and operating conditions.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Material supply and cell processing are separate

The Sol-Rite products listed by Mitsubishi Chemical are supplied by MU Ionic Solutions. Supplying electrolyte differs from filling, sealing and validating a cell.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Electrolyte is not coolant. It forms part of the cell's electrochemical environment, while coolant transfers heat in a thermal circuit.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • MU Ionic Solutions · Japan · Example role · Battery electrolytes

    MU Ionic Solutions' Sol-Rite, listed on Mitsubishi Chemical's product page.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Battery Foils and Current Collectors

Copper for anodes and aluminum for cathodes

Metal current collectors connect active materials to the external circuit. Common lithium-ion cells use copper foil on the anode and aluminum foil on the cathode.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Match the foil to the battery system

Chang Chun publishes battery copper foil for anode current collectors. Foil specifications require validation for the chemistry; a listed copper-foil company does not necessarily supply aluminum foil as well.

Taiwan battery copper foil

Chang Chun publishes lithium-ion battery copper foil for current collectors. Other group businesses do not establish named vehicle customers.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Battery foil and PCB foil serve different uses. A group offering both does not make their specifications interchangeable.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Chang Chun Group · Taiwan · Example role · Battery copper foil

    Copper foil for lithium-ion battery anode current collectors; this does not establish aluminum-foil supply.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Traction Battery Cells

Electrode production, assembly and formation

Cell production combines electrode materials, current collectors, separators and electrolyte into rechargeable units. These cells then enter battery-pack integration.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Form factor is different from chemistry

CATL and LG Energy Solution are representative traction-battery companies. Cylindrical, prismatic and pouch describe shape and packaging, while LFP and NMC describe chemistry.

EV cells and production evidence

Panasonic Energy announced production at its Kansas EV-cell plant in 2025. WeLion reports 360 Wh/kg cell deliveries to NIO. Plant startup and named deliveries are distinct evidence; energy density alone does not rank volume, cost or life.

Distinction: A cell, module and pack are different products. The cell's shape alone does not identify its chemistry.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • CATL · China · Example role · EV batteries

    Public EV battery and cell-integration technologies.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

  • LG Energy Solution · South Korea · Example role · EV battery cells

    Cylindrical, pouch and other products for passenger EVs.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

  • Panasonic Energy · Japan · Example role · Automotive lithium-ion cells

    Production announced at the Kansas EV battery factory in 2025; separate from Panasonic Industry electronic materials.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

  • BYD · China · Example role · LFP Blade Battery

    Vehicle deployment: second-generation Blade Battery in the 2026 DENZA Z9GT.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

  • Samsung SDI · South Korea · Example role · Production automotive lithium-ion batteries

    Mass-produced P6 prismatic and 21700 products, distinct from all-solid-state development.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

  • SK On · South Korea · Example role · Automotive traction batteries

    Documented application: Advanced SF batteries in Hyundai IONIQ 9; new form-factor exhibits require separate assessment.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

  • WeLion New Energy · China · Example role · Hybrid-electrolyte EV cells

    Production deliveries: company reports 360 Wh/kg cells delivered to NIO by late 2023.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Battery Management Systems and Monitoring ICs

Measurement, estimation, balancing and protection

A BMS combines monitoring chips, control circuits and software to track battery condition and support charging, discharging and protection controls.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Component supply is not a complete BMS contract

TI provides monitoring and design solutions for BMS applications. This is a semiconductor and design-support role, not a claim that it supplies finished BMS products for every vehicle.

Distinction: A BMS chip business does not prove a battery-pack or vehicle order from a particular automaker.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Texas Instruments · United States · Example role · BMS monitoring chips and design solutions

    Battery monitoring, balancing and system-design support upstream of BMS integration.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

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Battery Packs and Structural Integration

Modules, cell-to-pack designs, protection and cooling

Pack integration combines cells with management, connections, structures and thermal design. Conventional modules and cell-to-pack (CTP) approaches use different assembly levels.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Several architectures can reach the same vehicle stage

CATL publishes CTP technology, and BYD describes battery-body integration. The map connects cells directly to packs to accommodate both modular designs and designs omitting conventional modules.

Production examples: measurement boundaries

CATL published up to 255 Wh/kg at pack level for ternary Qilin CTP 3.0, a platform deployed in the 2023 long-range ZEEKR 001. A platform maximum is not every vehicle specification.

  • The 360 Wh/kg figure for NIO 150 kWh batteries is cell-level, not directly comparable with pack density.
  • XPENG G6/G9 specify 10–80% in as little as 12 minutes; second-generation Blade Z9GT specifies 10–70% in five minutes and 10–97% in nine.
  • Charging requires compatible equipment and suitable battery conditions. Compare charge windows, peak power and range-test standards separately.

Distinction: CTP does not eliminate every fastening, protection or cooling part. Pack designs still require validation for each vehicle.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • CATL · China · Example role · Battery-pack integration

    Cell-to-pack integration technology.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

  • BYD · China · Example role · Battery and vehicle-body integration

    e-Platform 3.0 and Blade Battery integration designs.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-09-30

  • NIO · China · Example role · 150 kWh pack integration and vehicle application

    Published pack uses 360 Wh/kg cells; WeLion documents the supply example, not all NIO battery configurations.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Battery-grade chemicals and salts

Purification and formulation inputs

Refined lithium, nickel and cobalt salts enter cathode or electrolyte production according to the chemistry. Coremax publishes battery-grade nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Published products: Coremax supplies inputs for cathode precursors. Purity and batch consistency must meet customer specifications; no single supplier is assumed to make every salt.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: LFP cathodes do not require nickel or cobalt. Coremax nickel and cobalt products are not universal inputs for all batteries.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Coremax (4739) · Taiwan · Example role · Upstream cathode chemicals

    Published products: battery-grade nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate, not cell manufacturing.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Battery manufacturing and testing

Electrode binders and conductive additives

Adhesion, dispersion and conduction

Binders maintain adhesion between electrode materials and collectors, while conductive additives support electronic conduction through the electrode.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Published product: Arkema Kynar PVDF is an electrode-binder example. Formulations depend on electrode chemistry, solvents and processing. Arkema is listed for binders, not assumed to supply every conductive additive.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Electrode binders differ from pack structural adhesives, thermal interface materials and PCB resins.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Arkema · France · Example role · Electrode binders

    Published Kynar PVDF electrode binders, distinct from pack structural adhesives.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Electrode mixing, coating and calendering

Formulation, drying and slitting

Active materials, binders and conductive materials are processed into electrodes on current collectors, controlling coating thickness, porosity and dimensions.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Typical wet processing includes mixing, coating, drying, calendering and slitting. Equipment and materials jointly control uniformity, solvent residue and defects. Dry-electrode routes use different process arrangements.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Electrode binders and conductive additivesCathode Active MaterialsAnode MaterialsBattery Foils and Current CollectorsLCO and high-voltage cathodes

Distinction: This is a cell-factory process. Supplying powders or resins does not mean manufacturing complete electrodes or cells.

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Cell assembly and sealing

Winding or stacking, filling and sealing

Electrodes and separating materials are assembled into a can or pouch. Liquid-electrolyte designs additionally require electrolyte filling and wetting.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Typical liquid-ion route: winding or stacking depends on the design, with alignment, contamination, moisture and sealing controlled. All-solid-state designs require different interface, pressing and environmental arrangements.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Traction Battery CellsSmall smartphone pouch cells

Distinction: Assembly alone does not qualify a cell for shipment. Formation, grading and verification follow; liquid filling is not a universal solid-state process.

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Cell formation, aging and grading

Initial cycling, rest and classification

Assembled cells undergo initial charge-discharge cycles and rest, followed by capacity, resistance and other measurements for screening and grading.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Published equipment: Chroma 17000 combines formation, grading, electrical tests and handling automation. This establishes a production-equipment role, not Chroma as an EV cell manufacturer.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: Nameplate capacity, equipment delivery, yield and qualified shipments are distinct metrics. A completed factory does not establish rated output.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • CHROMA · Taiwan · Example role · Cell production equipment

    Published 17000-series formation, grading and production automation.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Cell, pack and BMS testing

Cycling, reliability and system validation

Testing spans cell electrical performance, module and pack cycling, and BMS communication and control verification for development and production quality.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Published equipment: Chroma provides cell and pack testing, BMS communication integration and automation. Test coverage and safety validation depend on the specific system.

An upstream role shared with phone batteries

This node is also available in the smartphone battery map. The shared role is a material or process category; recipes, dimensions, equipment and customer qualification remain product-specific. Listed companies are not assumed to supply every phone or EV brand.

Distinction: New-battery development and production tests differ from screening retired batteries, even where measurements overlap.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • CHROMA · Taiwan · Example role · Cell and pack test equipment

    Published cycling, BMS communication integration and battery test systems.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Battery routes and production status

LFP and LMFP cathode materials

Lithium iron and manganese iron phosphates

Phosphate cathodes are a commercial lithium-ion material route. Aleees develops LFP and LMFP materials and manufacturing technology and operates a licensing business.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Materials and licensing: distinguish the material product, process know-how, license agreement, customer plant and actual shipments. Historical partnerships do not establish that every agreement remains active.

Distinction: LFP describes cathode chemistry, not electrolyte state or cylindrical, prismatic or pouch packaging.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Aleees / Advanced Lithium Electrochemistry-KY (5227) · Taiwan · Example role · Phosphate cathodes and process licensing

    Taiwan Aleees operating company provides LFP/LMFP materials and process licensing. Distinguish production, qualification and individual licenses.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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NMC, NCA and nickel-based cathodes

Chemistry and precursor processing

Nickel-based cathodes include NMC and NCA compositions. Materials and electrode design balance energy, power and service life.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Commercial material route: BASF publishes automotive cathode materials, while Coremax supplies upstream nickel and cobalt salts. Adjacent roles do not establish a commercial relationship. Precursors and finished active materials remain separate processing stages.

Distinction: Nickel content is not the complete cell formulation and does not alone determine charging speed or pack safety.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • BASF · Germany · Example role · Automotive cathode active materials

    Published automotive nickel-based cathode materials; upstream listings do not establish customers.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Semi-solid and hybrid-electrolyte batteries

Documented automotive deliveries

Hybrid routes retain some liquid components and use material and interface design to support ion transport and electrode contact. Verify the actual product structure.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Production-delivery example: WeLion reports delivery of 360 Wh/kg EV cells to NIO by late 2023. NIO specifies 360 Wh/kg at cell level for its 150 kWh pack. This is not pack density or evidence of widespread adoption.

Distinction: Semi-solid is not all-solid-state. Composition, deliveries and volume must be checked product by product.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • WeLion New Energy · China · Example role · Hybrid-electrolyte cell manufacturing

    360 Wh/kg cells delivered to NIO; the figure is cell-level.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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All-solid-state EV battery development

Validation and production targets

All-solid-state designs replace liquid electrolyte with solid electrolytes and require interface, pressure and large-cell manufacturing integration.

Entry sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

Role and production status

Development and production plan: Samsung SDI stated in 2026 that its technology remains under development, targeting mass production in the second half of 2027. This is a development branch, not a claim of current production-vehicle deliveries.

Distinction: Small solid-state devices, prototype cells or factory openings do not establish volume-delivered EV packs, nor does the label guarantee better performance on every metric.

Company roles

Scope of these company examples

  • Samsung SDI · South Korea · Example role · All-solid-state development

    Development and plan: 2026 announcement targets H2 2027 production, not current volume vehicle deliveries.

    Product / role source

    Sources reviewed: 2026-10-07

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Long-form guides (Chinese)

電動車供應鏈：從電池與電驅，串到整車、充電與回收

以純電動車 BEV 為主，整理電池材料、電芯與電池包、馬達、功率半導體、熱管理、整車、充電及回收，並區分產品角色與公開合作證據。